Indigenous Root Vegetables in Zimbabwe: A Qualitative Study of Local Knowledge, Consumption, and Health Perceptions
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.56479/ijgr-69Keywords:
Consumption patterns, Indigenous root vegetables, Local knowledge, Perceived health benefits, ZimbabweAbstract
African countries are endowed with diverse indigenous root vegetables; however, they remain insufficiently studied and documented, despite their potential to support health and wellness. The rising global burden of non-communicable diseases and malnutrition hinders progress toward the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of zero hunger and good health and well-being. This qualitative study explored indigenous root vegetables consumed in rural Rusape, Zimbabwe. The focus was on their availability, consumption patterns, and perceived health benefits. Using snowball sampling, twenty-five (25) farmers and consumers were interviewed, and free-listing techniques captured local knowledge. Thematic analysis revealed both common and unique root vegetables, though consumption has declined, particularly among younger generations. Although elders continue to value the nutritional and medicinal importance of indigenous root vegetables, indigenous knowledge is diminishing. The findings underscore the need to systematically document indigenous root vegetables and to enhance food security, preserve cultural heritage, and advance sustainability. Further scientific validation of perceived medicinal properties, alongside value addition and commercialization, could strengthen their role in national diets and extend their impact beyond Zimbabwe.
Downloads
References
Adenowo, A. F., & Kazeem, M. I. (2020). Tiger nut as a functional food, pharmacological and industrial agent: A mini review. Annals of Science and Technology, 5(1), 31-38. https://doi.org/10.2478/ast-2020-0004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/ast-2020-0004
Ahmed, S. K. (2025). Sample size for saturation in qualitative research: Debates, definitions, and strategies. Journal of Medicine, Surgery, and Public Health, 5, 100171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.glmedi.2024.100171 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.glmedi.2024.100171
Akinola, R., Pereira, L. M., Mabhaudhi, T., de Bruin, F. M., & Rusch, L. (2020). A review of indigenous food crops in Africa and the implications for more sustainable and healthy food systems. Sustainability, 12(8), 3493. https://doi.org/10.3390/SU12083493 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su12083493
Alam, M. K. (2021). A comprehensive review of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas [L.] Lam): Revisiting the associated health benefits. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 115, 512-529. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2021.07.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2021.07.001
Atuna, R. A., Djah, J., Achaglinkame, M. A., Bakker, S., Dari, L., Osei-Kwarteng, M., Mahunu, G. K., Koomen, I., & Amagloh, F. K. (2022). Types of indigenous vegetables consumed, preparation, preferences, and perceived benefits in Ghana. Journal of Ethnic Foods, 9(1), 38. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42779-022-00154-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s42779-022-00154-3
Bawajeeh, A. O., Albar, S. A., Zhang, H., Zulyniak, M. A., Evans, C. E. L., & Cade, J. E. (2020). Impact of taste on food choices in adolescence-systematic review and meta‐analysis. Nutrients, 12(7), 1985. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12071985 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12071985
Bazine, T., & Arslanoğlu, Ş. F. (2020). Tiger Nut (Cyperus esculentus): Morphology, Products, Uses, and Health Benefits. Black Sea Journal of Agriculture, 3(4), 324–328. https://izlik.org/JA96SH48TE
Bhardwaj, P. (2019). Types of sampling in research. Journal of the Practice of Cardiovascular Sciences, 5(3), 157-163. https://doi.org/10.4103/jpcs.jpcs_62_19 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4103/jpcs.jpcs_62_19
Boakye, A. A., Wireko‐Manu, F. D., Oduro, I., Ellis, W. O., Gudjónsdóttir, M., & Chronakis, I. S. (2018). Utilizing cocoyam (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) for food and nutrition security: A review. Food Science & Nutrition, 6(4), 703-713. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.602 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.602
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa DOI: https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Cereda, M. P., Vilpoux, O. F., & Sørensen, M. (2024). Introduction—underground starchy crops in food use. In M. P. Cereda and O. F. Vilpoux (Eds.), Traditional Starch Food Products: Application and Processing: Volume 4, (pp. 1–13). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-90844-3.00014-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-90844-3.00014-7
Chandrasekara, A., & Josheph Kumar, T. (2016). Roots and tuber crops as functional foods: A review on phytochemical constituents and their potential health benefits. International Journal of Food Science, 2016(1), 3631647. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/3631647 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/3631647
Chemura, A., Kutywayo, D., Hikwa, D., & Gornott, C. (2022). Climate change and cocoyam (Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott) production: assessing impacts and potential adaptation strategies in Zimbabwe. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 27(6), 42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11027-022-10014-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11027-022-10014-9
Chivenge, P., Mabhaudhi, T., Modi, A. T., & Mafongoya, P. (2015). The potential role of neglected and underutilised crop species as future crops under water scarce conditions in Sub-Saharan Africa. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 12(6), 5685-5711.https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120605685 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120605685
Chopera, P., Zimunya, P. R., Mugariri, F. M., & Matsungo, T. M. (2022). Facilitators and barriers to the consumption of traditional foods among adults in Zimbabwe. Journal of Ethnic Foods, 9(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42779-022-00121-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s42779-022-00121-y
Creswell, J. W., Hanson, W. E., Clark Plano, V. L., & Morales, A. (2007). Qualitative research designs: Selection and implementation. The Counselling Psychologist, 35(2), 236-264. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000006287390 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000006287390
Ferdaus, M. J., Chukwu-Munsen, E., Foguel, A., & da Silva, R. C. (2023). Taro roots: an underexploited root crop. Nutrients, 15(15), 3337. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15153337 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15153337
Gayao, B. T., Meldoz, D. T., & Backian, G. (2017). Indigenous knowledge and household food security: the role of root and tuber crops among indigenous peoples in the Northern Philippines. In A. Niehof, H. N. Gartaula, & M. Quetulio-Navarra (Eds), Diversity and Change in Food Wellbeing (pp. 43–69). BRILL. https://doi.org/10.3920/978-90-8686-864-3_3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3920/978-90-8686-864-3_3
Haines, J., Haycraft, E., Lytle, L., Nicklaus, S., Kok, F. J., Merdji, M., Fisberg, M., Moreno, L. A., Goulet, O., & Hughes, S. O. (2019). Nurturing Children’s Healthy Eating: Position statement. Appetite, 137, 124–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2019.02.007 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2019.02.007
Hussain, M. A., Li, L., Kalu, A., Wu, X., & Naumovski, N. (2025). Sustainable food security and nutritional challenges. Sustainability, 17(3), 874. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17030874 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su17030874
Igartua, J. J., Rodríguez-Contreras, L., Guerrero-Martín, Í., & Honorato-Vicente, A. (2023). “It happened to me, and it’s serious": Conditional indirect effects of infection severity narrated in testimonial tweets on COVID-19 prevention. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(13), 6254. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20136254 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20136254
Jamir, S., Devi, K. S., Ningombam, E., & Verma, A. (2024). A review on post-harvest technology of an underutilized vegetable bitter tomato (Solanum aethiopicum L cv. gilo) of the North-eastern region of India. In BIO Web of Conferences (Vol. 110, p. 02006). EDP Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1051/bioconf/202411002006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1051/bioconf/202411002006
Jani, V. (2022). Resource management, livelihoods and ethnic minorities: The case of the Doma, Northern Zimbabwe. In K. Helliker, P. Chadambuka, & J. Matanzima (Eds.), Livelihoods of ethnic minorities in rural Zimbabwe (pp. 89-105). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94800-9_5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-94800-9_5
Kamvura, T. T., Dambi, J. M., Chiriseri, E., Turner, J., Verhey, R., & Chibanda, D. (2022). Barriers to the provision of non-communicable disease care in Zimbabwe: a qualitative study of primary health care nurses. BMC Nursing, 21(1), 64. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-022-00841-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-022-00841-1
Knez, E., Kadac-Czapska, K., Dmochowska-Ślęzak, K., & Grembecka, M. (2022). Root vegetables—composition, health effects, and contaminants. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(23), 15531. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192315531 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192315531
Kuhnlein, H. V. (2015). Food system sustainability for the health and well-being of Indigenous Peoples. Public Health Nutrition, 18(13), 2415–2424. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980014002961 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980014002961
Kujeke, G. T., Mazarura, U., Ngadze, E., Gasura, E., Rugare, J. T., Matikiti, A., & Masekesa, R. T. (2019). Untapped potential of the Livingstone potato, an indigenous and underutilized root crop in Zimbabwe: A review. African Crop Science Journal, 27(2), 307-320. https://doi.org/10.4314/acsj.v27i2.14 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4314/acsj.v27i2.14
Kulshrestha, K. (2018). Horticultural Crops Value Addition for Nutritional Security. International Journal of Research - Granthaalayah, 6(10), 110–120. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1475432 DOI: https://doi.org/10.29121/granthaalayah.v6.i10.2018.1168
Kuo, G., N’Danikou, S., Dinssa, F., Roothaert, R., Rugalema, R., Simon, J. E., Wopereis, M., & Van Zonneveld, M. (2022). All-Africa summit on diversifying food systems with African traditional vegetables to increase health, nutrition, and wealth. Journal of Medicinally Active Plants, 11(3), 1-57. https://doi.org/10.7275/t7fs-j107
Lotter, D. W., Marshall, M. J., Weller, S., & Mugisha, A. (2014). African indigenous and traditional vegetables in Tanzania: Production, post-harvest management, and marketing. African Crop Science Journal, 22(3), 181-190.
Li, Z., Shen, L., Liu, T., Wei, W., & Wang, J. (2024). Effects of different crop intercropping on the growth, root system, and yield of tiger nuts. Agronomy, 14(6), 1270. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14061270 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14061270
Mabhaudhi, T., O’Reilly, P., Walker, S., & Mwale, S. (2016). Opportunities for underutilised crops in southern Africa’s post–2015 development agenda. Sustainability, 8(4), 302. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8040302 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su8040302
Magbalot-Fernandez, A., & Umar, M. (2018). A Review on Root Crops Processing for Food Security and Health. Journal of South Pacific Agriculture, 21, 26-33.
Manduna, I., & Vibrans, H. (2018). Consumption of Wild-Growing Vegetables in the Honde Valley, Zimbabwe. Economic Botany 72(4), 436–449. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12231-019-9441-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12231-019-9441-y
Mangundu, M., Roets, L., & van R. ES, J. (2023). The economic crisis (2008-2019) and Health care in Zimbabwe: A structured literature review. The Open Public Health Journal, 16(1), e187494452302211. https://doi.org/10.2174/18749445-v16-e230320-2022-216 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2174/18749445-v16-e230320-2022-216
Maroyi, A. (2013). Traditional use of medicinal plants in south-central Zimbabwe: Review and perspectives. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 9(1), 31. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-9-31 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-9-31
Martirosyan, D., & Stratton, S. (2023). Quantum and tempus theories of functional food science in practice. Functional Food Science, 3(5), 55–62. https://doi.org/10.31989/ffs.v3i5.1122 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31989/ffs.v3i5.1122
Masarirambi, M. T., Nxumalo, K. A., Kunene, E. N., Dlamini, D. V., Mpofu, M., Manwa, L., Earnshaw, D. M., & Bwembya, G. C. (2020). Traditional/indigenous vegetables of the Kingdom of Eswatini: Biodiversity and their importance: A Review. Journal of Experimental Agriculture International, 42(9), 204–215. https://doi.org/10.9734/jeai/2020/v42i930602 DOI: https://doi.org/10.9734/jeai/2020/v42i930602
Matikiti A. A., Allemann J. A., Kujeke G.B., Gasura E. B., Masekesa, T., & Chabata, I. B. (2017). Nutritional composition of cocoyam (Colocasia esculenta), grown in Manicaland province in Zimbabwe. Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development, 7(3), 48–55. https://doi.org/10.18488/journal.1005/2017.7.3/1005.3.48.55 DOI: https://doi.org/10.18488/journal.1005/2017.7.3/1005.3.48.55
Mazike, H. G., Chipurura, B., & Macheka, L. (2023). Value addition of African indigenous vegetables (AIVs) and their utilization as food to improve food and nutrition security: A review. Food Reviews International, 39(8), 5164–5184. https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2022.2062765 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2022.2062765
Mbhenyane, X. G., Mushaphi, L. F., Mabapa, N. S., Makuse, S. H., & Amey, A. (2015). The consumption of indigenous fruits and vegetables and health risk in rural subjects of Limpopo province, South Africa. Indilinga: African Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems, 12(1), 160–168. https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC141610
Mgwenya, L. I., Agholor, I. A., Ludidi, N., Morepje, M. T., Sithole, M. Z., Msweli, N. S., & Thabane, V. N. (2025). Unpacking the multifaceted benefits of indigenous crops for food security: A review of nutritional, economic, and environmental impacts in Southern Africa. World, 6(1), 16. https://doi.org/10.3390/world6010016 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/world6010016
Mujuru, L., Jimu, L., Mureva, A., Mapaura, A., Nyakudya, I. W., & Muvengwi, J. (2020). Diversity of local knowledge on the use of wild food and medicinal plants in communities around five biodiversity hotspots in Zimbabwe. Advances in Traditional Medicine, 20(4), 663–671. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00512-z DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-020-00512-z
Munsaka, C. (2019). Examination of the perceived contribution of edible indigenous plants in combating food and nutrition insecurity in the Tonga community of Zimbabwe [Master’s thesis, University of Venda]. University of Venda Institutional Repository.
Mungofa, N., Sibanyoni, J. J., Mashau, M. E., & Beswa, D. (2022). Prospective role of indigenous leafy vegetables as functional food ingredients. Molecules, 27(22), 7995. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27227995 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27227995
Mupakati, T., & Tanyanyiwa, V. I. (2017). Cassava production as a climate change adaptation strategy in Chilonga Ward, Chiredzi District, Zimbabwe. Jàmbá: Journal of Disaster Risk Studies, 9(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.4102/jamba.v9i1.348 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4102/jamba.v9i1.348
Nabeshima, E. H., Moro, T. M. A., Campelo, P. H., Sant’Ana, A. S., & Clerici, M. T. P. S. (2020). Tubers and roots as a source of prebiotic fibers. In A. G. da Cruz, E. S. Prudencio, E. A. Esmerino, & M. C. da Silva (Eds.), Advances in Food and Nutrition Research (Vol. 94, pp. 267-293). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.afnr.2020.06.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.afnr.2020.06.005
Nayak, L., Barik, M., Tiwari, R. K., Kumar, R., & Kumar, A. (2025). Overview of underground vegetable crops. In M.K. Lal, R. K. Tiwari, A. Kumar, R. Kumar, & B. Singh (Eds.) Abiotic stress in underground vegetables. Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-23961-8.00001-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-23961-8.00001-2
Nwose, E. U., Onodu, B. C., Anyasodor, A. E., Sedowo, M. O., Okuzor, J. N., & Culas, R. J. (2017). Ethnopharmacological values of cassava and its potential for diabetes and dyslipidemia management: Knowledge survey and critical review of reports. Journal of Intercultural Ethnopharmacology, 6(3), 260–266. https://doi.org/10.5455/jice.20170606094119 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5455/jice.20170606094119
Nxusani, Z. N., Zuma, M. K., & Mbhenyane, X. G. (2023). A systematic review of indigenous food plant usage in Southern Africa. Sustainability, 15(11), 8799. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15118799 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su15118799
Nyaruwata, C. (2019). Contribution of selected indigenous vegetables to household income and food availability in Wedza District of Zimbabwe. Acta Scientific Agriculture, 3(3), 170–188.
Ogedengbe, O. O., Bature, A., Fafure, A. A., Kehinde, S. O., Adekeye, A. O., Akintayo, C. O., Ajiboye, B. O., & Adeeyo, O. A. (2023). Evaluation of testicular function and structural changes of wistar rats following antiretroviral Exposure: Protective Role of Cyperus esculentus. Nigerian Journal of Physiological Sciences, 38(2), 201–209. https://doi.org/10.54548/njps.v38i2.9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.54548/njps.v38i2.9
Onodu, B. C., Culas, R. J., & Nwose, E. U. (2018). Facts about dietary fibre in cassava: Implication for diabetes’ medical nutrition therapy. Integrative Food, Nutrition and Metabolism, 5(3), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.15761/IFNM.1000216 DOI: https://doi.org/10.15761/IFNM.1000216
Onomu, A. R., Taruvinga, A., & Chinyamurindi, W. T. (2023). Potential and transformation of indigenous floral foods in Africa: What research tells over the past two decades (2000–2022). Advances in Agriculture, 2023(1), 8877953. https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/8877953 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/8877953
Ojimelukwe, P., Muoasinam, C., & Omodamiro, R. (2021). Current perspectives on the nutrient composition and health benefits of yams (Dioscorea species). International Journal of Agriculture, Environment and Food Sciences, 5(2), 179–190. https://doi.org/10.31015/jaefs.2021.2.7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31015/jaefs.2021.2.7
Oktay, S., & Ekinci, E. K. (2019). Medicinal food understanding in Korean gastronomic culture. Journal of Ethnic Foods, 6(4), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42779-019-0003-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s42779-019-0003-9
Park, S., Hongu, N., & Daily III, J. W. (2016). Native American foods: History, culture, and influence on modern diets. Journal of Ethnic Foods, 3(3), 171-177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jef.2016.08.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jef.2016.08.001
Parker, C., Scott, S., & Geddes, A. (2019). Snowball sampling. Sage research methods foundations. SAGE. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781526421036831710 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781526421036831710
Sánchez‐Zapata, E., Fernández‐López, J., & Angel Pérez‐Alvarez, J. (2012). Tiger nut (Cyperus esculentus) commercialization: Health aspects, composition, properties, and food applications. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 11(4), 366-377. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-4337.2012.00190.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-4337.2012.00190.x
Saranraj, P., Behera, S. S., & Ray, R. C. (2019). Traditional foods from tropical root and tuber crops: Innovations and challenges. In C. M. Galanakis (Ed.), Innovations in traditional foods (pp. 159-191). Woodhead Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814887-7.00007-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814887-7.00007-1
Sarkar, D., Walker-Swaney, J., & Shetty, K. (2020). Food diversity and indigenous food systems to combat diet-linked chronic diseases. Current Developments in Nutrition, 4(1), 3–11. https://doi.org/10.1093/cdn/nzz099 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/cdn/nzz099
Singh, S., Singh, L. B., Singh, D. R., Chand, S., Zamir Ahmed, S. K., Singh, V. N., & Dam Roy, S. (2018). Indigenous underutilized vegetables for food and nutritional security in an island ecosystem: Journal of Food security, 10(5), 1173-1189. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-018-0840-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-018-0840-1
Shrestha, D. (2013). Indigenous vegetables of Nepal for biodiversity and food security. International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation, 5(3), 98–108.
Tapera, M., Wanjau, R., Dzomba, P., Machocho, A. K., & Mburu, J. (2020). Phytochemical study to validate the ethnobotanical importance of Dioscorea steriscus tubers obtained from Zimbabwe. Sted Journal, 2(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.7251/sted2002001t DOI: https://doi.org/10.7251/sted2002001t
Thebe, V. (2018). ‘Men on transit’ and the rural ‘farmer housewives’: women in decision-making roles in migrant labor societies in Northwestern Zimbabwe. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 53(7), 1118-1133. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909618773781 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909618773781
Turner, N. J., Luczaj, L. J., Migliorini, P., Pieroni, A., Dreon, A. L., Sacchetti, L. E., & Paoletti, M. G. (2011). Edible and tended wild plants, traditional ecological knowledge, and agroecology. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, 30(1–2), 198–225. https://doi.org/10.1080/07352689.2011.554492 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07352689.2011.554492
van Manen, M. (2023). Phenomenology of practice: Meaning-giving methods in phenomenological research and writing. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003228073 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003228073
Verma, R., & Shah, N. (2023). A Study on Potential and Value Addition of a Rare Medicinal/Culinary Plant, Dioscoria Belophylla, Tarar (Wild Yam) of Shivalik Belt in Sunderbani Forest Range, District Rajouri. International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology, 8(1), 445-455. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7567316
Washaya, S., Mupangwa, J. F., & Muranda, E. (2016). Nutritional value and utilization of yams (Dioscorea steriscus) by residents of Bindura Town high density suburbs, Zimbabwe. Advances in Agriculture, 2016(1), 5934738. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/5934738 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/5934738
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Patience Chitupa, Clotildah Kazembe, Enes Madzikatire, Faith Angelina Manditsera
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Licensing (CC BY-NC 4.0): This license allows others to remix, adapt, and build upon the work for non-commercial purposes, provided that appropriate credit is given to IJGR. Authors may also share their complete publications freely, without any restrictions.
The journal is licensed under 